Social Issues 1900 -1914
Working Conditions:
- Laws for the improvement of living and working conditions.
- Australia was described as a working mans paradise.
Classes:
- Working Class:
- Housing:
- Houses were small and overcrowded - large families
- Rare to have indoor toilets and rarer still to have indoor baths
- Housing:
§ Slums were infested with rats
○ Social Issues:
§ Hard conditions led to drunkenness, crime, prostitution, begging
○ Working Conditions:
§ No job security - lives ruled by un-certainty
§ Worked 12-16 hour days
§ Very low wages
§ Social roles - men breadwinners, women caretakers
§ Working conditions were very rough but employers ignored laws
§ Factories - crowded, hot in summer, freezing in winter, few safety regulations many accidents
§ Shop assistants and domestic servants - very long hours (in excess of 12 hours) little pay
§ Children- long hours, low wage, dangerous conditions
§ Governments believed that a man should look after himself
§ Manual Labours worked 10 hours a day 6 days a week
§ No workers compensation, sick leave or superannuation
§ Many rural workers were shearers but were undervalued.
§ If work was not satisfactory the employer could withhold workers wages
§ Women earned 50% less than male counterparts
○ Health:
§ Slums were a breeding ground for disease
§ Major outbreak of Bubonic Plague in 1900
§ No antibiotics, poor medical knowledge
§ Tuberculosis, diphtheria, scarlet fever, influenza, typhoid, small pox, polio
§ Could not afford doctors
§ Poor knowledge of hygiene - spread of disease
§ Surgery was dangerous, high mortality in childbirth
§ Low life expectancy, few live past 55
§ Home remedies, cuts were treated with green paint or spiders web
§ Often bought harmless but useless remedies advertised in paper
§ Some were more dangerous, cough mixtures and lollies for children contained heroin, opium, cannabis and morphine
○ Education:
§ Was compulsory from age 6 but most working class children left school age 12 to enter the work force
§ Slates and slate pencil - higher grades used pen and ink
§ Rote learning method
§ Punished with cane
§ Exams every year - if children failed exam stayed in same class
§ Children from rural families often missed school to work on the farm and look after younger siblings
§ Country - one room, one teacher
§ City - crowded classes 40-60 pupils
§ From 1911 all boys from age 12 had to complete 64 hours on 'drill'. Fail to complete - were taken to court
§ Girls were taught feminie subjects such as cooking and needlework on top of ordinary work
• Middle Class:
§ Middle class - usually white collar workers, office people, self employed, teachers, in commerce
§ Larger houses in leafier, airier suburbs
§ Proper sanitation and sewage
§ Access to new technology - telephone and phonograph
§ Could be unemployed but did not suffer the uncertainly of WC people
§ Less women worked - if they did then usually in charity or professional activities
• Upper Class:
§ Suffered no job security - inherited money and owned factories etc
○ Health for Middle and Upper was much better.
§ Larger, cleaner home - less chance of rats spreading disease
§ Could afford doctors and better diet
§ However illness still affected MC and UC
○ Education:
§ Children from wealthier families went to secondary school and the privileged to private schools and could expect to go to uni
§ Greatly helped their chances in life
§ Girls generally went to finishing schools - learnt French, Literature and how to run a household
○ Leisure:
§ Sports such as golf, tennis, hunting, car racing and rowing were restricted to the Middle and Upper Classes
Social Legislation:
• Immigration Restriction Act:
○ After the opening of the Australian Federal Government in 1901 the public and the government alike were keen to use the Commonwealth's new found power to restrict non-white immigration into Australia and the removal of non-whites who were living in Australia
○ Bill was introduced 5th June 1901
○ First step in the White Australia Policy
○ Most controversial part was the Language Test which was based on the tactics of the South African Immigration Restriction Act where the immigrant was tested in an un-familiar language
○ Some resistance to the Bill only on the grounds that it did not do enough to prevent immigrants from entering Australia.
○ Leader of the Labour Party John Watson wanted to make an amendment to the Bill that directly prohibited any coloured migrants from entering Australia meaning that white workers would not have to complete with immigrants who would work for a much cheaper wage.
○ While the majority of the public supported the Bill some were concerned with the reaction of the British Government who were generally opposed to immigration restrictions that were based on race or colour alone. This was out of concern that it would create tension between their Indian subjects and Japanese allies
○ Under pressure from the allies the British Government instructed the Governor General to encourage the government to make an amendment to the Bill so that the Language test included several European languages not just English
○ The Governor General was successful in his task and on the 23rd of December 1901 the Immigration Restriction Act became Law.
○ The act prevented anyone from entering the country if they were mentally ill, carried and contagious disease, unlikely to be able to support themselves, had a contract as a manual labourer or had a criminal record
○ The Act also allowed immigration officers to test anyone (usually coloured) with a 50-word test in any European Language.
○ Statistics show that of the 805 people who were tested between 1902 and 1903 only 46 people passed
○ After pressure from other countries (mainly England and Japan) the dictation test was changes so that the migrant could be tested in any language. This only made it harder for non-whites to enter Australia because they would most likely be tested in a language they didn't know. In the 544 times the test was conducted only 6 people passed.
○ After several more amendments the test was eventually abolished in 1958
• Harvester Decision:
○ Determined a basic wage for workers
○ Was well ahead of Britain
○ Terrible working conditions throughout 1800's
○ The Conciliation and Arbitration Court was instated in 1904 to resolve disagreements between employers and employees
○ Involved Hugh Victor McKay would owned several factories that produced agricultural machinery.
○ By 1904 McKay was the largest Commo wealth exporter
○ HV McKay was trying to seek exemption from the Excise Tariff Act which stated an exemption from the excise if the employer payed fair and reasonable wages
○ McKay met opposition from the Agricultural Implement Makers Society
○ Justice Henry Higgins was the president of the Conciliation and Arbitration Court
○ Higgins determined that the average un-skilled worker needed 42 shillings a week to support his wife and three kids
○ Was revolutionary in setting a basic wage but had its criticisms
§ Women were exempt from the Basic Wage and were still only earning 54% of a mans wage in the same job
§ Did not change until 1914 despite the fluctuation of living costs
• 1909 Old Age Pension
○ For men over 65 and women over 60
○ Aboriginals were excluded
• 1910 Invalid Pension
○ Same restrictions applied
• 1912 Workers Compensation Act
○ Workers were given compensation if they were injured or contracted a disease at work
• 1912 Maternity Allowance Act
○ Mothers were given a 5 pound bonus on the birth of their first child
Women and the Vote:
• Women achieved the vote before European women - reflects that Australia was a progressive country
• In 1894 South Australia became the first Australian colony to grant women over 21 the vote
• Has been suggested that the reason women in Australia were granted the vote before women in England and America is that Australian women had no intention of entering politics and so were not seen as as much of a threat
• The right for women to stand in an election was added as a amendment to the bill by a politician who believed that the extremely radical notion would be enough to dissuade even the strongest suffrage supports but he under estimated the support behind the women's movement and the bill was passed
• In 1902 after Federation it was decided that all women over the age of 21 (who were not of Indigenous, Asian, African, or Pacific Islanded decent) would be allowed to vote in federal elections
Federation
○ Before 1900 Australia had been 6 separate colonies
○ During the 1890's there was a campaign to achieve Federation and on January 1st 1901 Australia formally became a united nation and the constitution was introduced
○ Australian Federal Parliament opened on the 13th May 1901
○ Arguments Against:
§ Western Australia feared that because of it isolation it would be overlooked in favour of the eastern states
§ Queensland's economy depended on sugar and much of the field work was done by Pacific Islander immigrants called Kanakas. They feared that Federation would lead to the end of importing these workers
§ NSW feared that it would loose control of its railways and that it would loose territory to its neighbouring states
§ NSW and Vic were great rivals and both expected the capital to be build in its state
§ States with smaller populations feared that their interests would be overrun by the more powerful states opinions
○ Arguments For:
§ Improve transport and communication
§ Remove inter-colonial tariffs which encouraged trade within Australia
§ Make Australia more appealing to overseas investors - stimulate economy
§ Would help the colonies to keep Australia white with a common immigration policy
§ Would combine the 6 individual militias
Constitution:
○ In the late 1800's a series of conventions were held in which representatives from each state collaborated to write the constitution
○ It is a number of documents that outline how the Federation should be operated
○ It granted the formation of a Commonwealth Government and that each colony should become its own state and should retain its own Government
○ The only way to change the Constitution is through a referendum that gets the majority in a majority of states
○ The Australian system of government is based on Britain's Westminster system with a few changes made for the existence of states
Public Support for the war:
• Leaders automatically supported Britain in the war
• Overwhelming public support for taking the country to war
• 90% of Australians had a British background and most saw themselves as being British
• Schools, the church and the press all promoted imperial loyalty
• The law, education, government and religion were closely modelled on Britain
• Fears of attack from 'Asian hordes', Russia and the French increased public support for Britain
WW1 :
• Started on the 28th of July 1914 ended 11th of November 1918
• Between 1914 and 1918 300, 000 Australian men volunteered to fight for Britain
• 60 000 men died
• Almost 250, 000 casualties
• Australian men fought at:
○ The German colony in New Guinea was taken over in the early months of the war
○ Naval action against German forces, including the sinking of Emden off the coast of WA
○ First major fighting campaign at Gallipoli in 1915
○ The Light Horse fought against Turkish forces in the Middle East
○ Greatest involvement was on the Western Front between 1916 and 1918
• Gallipoli:
○ Towards the end of 1914, early recruits (who formed AIF ) combined with NZ troop to form ANZAC
○ Were transported to Egypt where they were trained under British control
○ Many troops misbehaved due to boredom, no public consequence
○ Located in the North West corner of modern day Turkey
○ Aim to gain control of the Gallipoli Peninsula and the Dardanelles (among other things) so that the allied forced could capture Constantinople
○ Campaign was a disaster from the beginning because of a failed attempt to capture the Dardanelles by the French and British the Turks suspected and were prepared for a land attack.
○ Combined allied forces of 73 000 men - 21 000 Aus, 10 000 NZ troops
• Living Conditions at Gallipoli:
○ Had to live in trenches which had to be built under intense fire from the Turks
○ Unbearable hot and dry in summer
○ Disease ridden flies - fed on corpses, contaminated food
○ Sub-zero temperatures in winter
○ Trenches became full of corpses, rainwater, vomit, urine and faeces
○ Rats feasted on the corpses of both Turks and Aus - spread diseases
○ Thousands fell victim to disease in particular diarrhoea and dysentery
○ Food was shipped in - mostly from Egypt and was sometimes hard to get food the men at the front line
○ According to British manuals each man should be given 4.5L of water per day - did not always happen
○ Gallipoli landscape was largely shrubby and barren - steep hills and narrow gullies with spikey thorns
○ Communication from home
§ People had very realistic ideas of what life was like at Gallipoli
○ Clothing
§ No one but senior officers had pyjamas
§ Had 2 pairs of shorts hacked from trousers - one for day and one for sleeping in
§ Had a pair of socks if they weren't lost or stolen
Trench Warfare - Extended Response
○ Soldiers were instructed to deepen the trenches but many lost their shovels in the chaos of the landing
○ Steep gullies meant that much of the land remained poorly entrenched even several months into the campaign
○ Turkish and Australian trenches very close
§ 15m apart at Quins post
§ In May 1915 Turkish saps (which were tunnels leading forward from the main trench) were only 5 m away from the Australian's
○ Both sides threw small bombs at the others.
§ Australian's made bombs from Jam jars filled with shrapnel with a fuse running through the top
§ Turks had many bombs mostly German cricket ball style
○ Some Australian trenches were covered in netting to stop the bombs from hitting soldiers
○ Snipers usually worked alone in no mans land
○ Periscopes were developed with a complex system of mirrors which enables the soldiers to see the enemy without putting their head over the side of the trench
○ Latrines were slits dug from the side of the trench - some which metal pans which were emptied b orderlies
○ Dead soldiers were put over the side of the trenches on to no mans land
Home Front - Conscription- Extended Response
○ Support for the war was declining which reduced the number of people volunteering to join the army
○ In 1911 a law was passed meaning that all males from 12 -26 who had not been given exemptions were to undertake military training
○ Eve though this law did not require the men to serve overseas it was still met by opposition from the boys and their employers and families
○ There was some criticism that the training was not adequate to defend the country
○ Billy Hughes came into power and went against Labours traditions and tried to introduce mandatory service
○ In 1916 Hughes held a public vote which did not get the majority but only by a small margin
○ Hughes split away from the Labour Party and in 1917 held another vote but once again the public did not support conscription
○ Was a very controversial issue fuelled by propaganda that played on fear, guilt and shame
○ Support for conscription was based on the belief that the sacrifices already made by Australian men should not have been in vain
○ Opposition for conscription focused on the denial of a mans rights - putting the needs of the Empire above the needs of the average Australian
○ Labour Party was against conscription on the belief that it would make the already rich employers richer while the workers were sent the their deathbed
○ The Anglican Church and upper and middle class were in favour of conscription because of strong time to England
Role of Women before/during/after - Extended Response
• Before:
○ Middle and Upper class worked in charity or white collar jobs
○ Working class women worked as shop assistants and unskilled workers
○ Had the domestic role in the household
• During:
○ Government believed that a women's place was in the home not on the frontline
○ Had to cope with emotional burden of waiting for loved ones to return
○ Although women had been granted suffrage women were still payed much less than their male counter parts
○ British women were allowed to work in factories and Australian women were not
○ Women filled roles that were typically male such as banking and bookkeeping
○ Women worked for charities such as Australian Red Cross and Australian Comforts Fund -to raise money and send comfort parcels to soldiers
○ Children were required to work in the fundraising efforts which mirrored then roles of their parents
○ Working class did not have time, money or resources to contribute to the fundraising effort which led many people to see them as disloyal
○ Propaganda targeted women in two ways
§ To encourage them to take a stance on conscription
§ to create sympathetic responses from men
○ Nursing
§ The government allowed women to be nurses as it was seen as a traditional female role
§ Australian Army Nursing Service was founded in 1903 and was staffed by part time volunteers
§ Women's contribution to nursing had gone relatively unrecognised
§ The Royal Red Cross and the Military Medal were won by several women for their bravery
§ Women had to suffer the same harsh conditions and un-varied food as men
○ Social Impacts:
§ Lack of young men
• After:
○ It was assumed that men would resume their roles when they returned but many men did not return and some women continued in their roles
○ Women changed their fashions from the British styles which were inappropriate for the Australian climate to a more relaxed and daring style which imitated the American style at the time
○ Technology advances made life easier for women
○ It became socially acceptable for women to smoke and drink in public
○ Working class women still had to spend their time and money on looking after their families
○ In the excitement of the outbreak of the war few women thought about the fact that they could become widows
○ In 1914 the Commonwealth Introduced a War Pensions Act that gave compensation to men who had been physically or mentally damaged or killed in active service
○ De facto relationships were not considered as marriage so many women struggled
